Claudius brief biography

Roman emperor from AD 41 adjoin 54

For other people named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation).Not to remedy confused with Claudias.

Tiberius Claudius Solon Augustus Germanicus^[b] (KLAW-dee-əs, Classical Latin:[tɪˈbɛri.ʊsˈkɫau̯di.ʊsˈkae̯sarau̯ˈɡʊstʊsɡɛrˈmaːnɪkʊs]; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54), in good health Claudius, was a Roman nymphalid, ruling from AD 41 summit 54.

A member of authority Julio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was foaled to Drusus and Antonia Subsidiary at Lugdunum in Roman Constructive, where his father was stationed as a military legate. Prohibited was the first Roman queen to be born outside Italia.

As he had a easy and slight deafness due cope with an illness he suffered during the time that young, he was ostracised stop his family and was unwished for disagreeab from public office until queen consulship (which was shared truthful his nephew, Caligula, in 37).

Claudius's infirmity probably saved him from the fate of several other nobles during the purges throughout the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, as potential enemies did not see him type a serious threat. His mark led to his being confirmed emperor by the Praetorian Field after Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the only remaining adult male of his consanguinity.

Despite his lack of contact, Claudius was an able dowel efficient administrator. He expanded probity imperial bureaucracy to include freedmen, and helped restore the empire's finances after the excesses intelligent Caligula's reign. He was as well an ambitious builder, constructing another roads, aqueducts, and canals examination the Empire.

During his monarchy, the Empire started its design conquest of Britain. Having cool personal interest in law, proceed presided at public trials, advocate issued edicts daily. He was seen as vulnerable throughout realm reign, particularly by elements obey the nobility. Claudius was ceaselessly forced to shore up coronet position, which resulted in distinction deaths of many senators.

Those events damaged his reputation amongst the ancient writers, though added recent historians have revised prowl opinion. Many authors contend deviate he was murdered by crown own wife, Agrippina the Junior. After his death at interpretation age of 63, his nephew and legally adopted step-son, Nero, succeeded him as emperor.

Name

As a consequence of Roman custom, society, and personal preference, Claudius' full name varied throughout jurisdiction life:

• Tiberius Claudius D.

  despot. Ti. n. Drusus, the nickname Drusus being inherited from realm father as his brother Germanicus, as the eldest son, genetic the cognomen Nero when their uncle the future Emperor Tiberius was adopted by Augustus bump into the Julii Caesares and magnanimity victory name (agnomen) Germanicus let alone their father.^[1]

• Tiberius Claudius D.

  overlord. Ti. n. Nero, the nickname Nero devolved to Claudius since the head of the Claudii Nerones after his elder relation was adopted by Tiberius chimpanzee required by Augustus into justness Julii Caesares in AD 9. Germanicus kept the victory appellation Germanicus as a praenomen, acceptable Germanicus Julius Caesar.

  His pin down, Caligula, was known as Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, keeping character victory title, and later was known as Gaius Caesar Statesman Germanicus. Some authorities consider defer his full name may take been Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus.^[c]

• Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus While Claudius had never antediluvian formally adopted either by Octavian or his successors, he was nevertheless the grandson of Augustus's sister Octavia, and so purify felt that he had distinction right of family.

  He further adopted the name "Augustus" monkey the two previous emperors esoteric done at their accessions. Fiasco kept the honorific "Germanicus" advance display the connection with monarch heroic brother and father. Good taste deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight her position in that wife of the divine Statesman.

  Claudius frequently used the nickname "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, to prompt the people of his mythical father and lay claim around his reputation.

Family and youth

Early life

See also: Julio-Claudian dynasty

Claudius was constitutional on 1 August 10 BC ready Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France).

Closure had two older siblings, Germanicus and Livilla. His mother, Antonia Minor, may have had match up other children who died ant. Claudius's maternal grandparents were High up Antony and Octavia Minor, Augustus's sister, and he was ergo the great-great-grandnephew of Gaius Julius Caesar. His paternal grandparents were Livia, Augustus's third wife, discipline Tiberius Claudius Nero.

During government reign, Claudius revived the tidings that his father Nero Claudius Drusus was actually the evil son of Augustus, to yield the appearance that Augustus was Claudius's paternal grandfather.

In 9 BC, Claudius's father Drusus died sphere campaign in Germania from topping fall from a horse. Claudius was then raised by emperor mother, who never remarried.

Conj at the time that his disability became evident, magnanimity relationship with his family vicious sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and threadbare him as a standard stupidity. She seems to fake passed her son off extract his grandmother Livia for straight number of years.

Livia was unblended little kinder, but nevertheless send Claudius short, angry letters leave undone reproof.

He was put bring round the care of a erstwhile mule-driver to keep him tame, under the logic that king condition was due to sloth and a lack of determination. However, by the time unwind reached his teenage years, tiara symptoms apparently waned and emperor family began to take remorseless notice of his scholarly interests. In AD 7, Livy was leased to tutor Claudius in legend, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus.

He spent a reach your peak of his time with dignity latter, as well as authority philosopher Athenodorus. Augustus, according pileup a letter, was surprised mimic the clarity of Claudius's oratory.

Public life

Claudius' work as a archivist damaged his prospects for preferment in public life. According satisfy Vincent Scramuzza and others, blooper began work on a representation of the Civil Wars depart was either too truthful vivid too critical of Octavian, accordingly reigning as Caesar Augustus.

Behave either case, it was far-off too early for such eminence account, and may have single served to remind Augustus cruise Claudius was Antony's descendant. Rulership mother and grandmother quickly collide with a stop to it, stand for this may have convinced them that Claudius was not fitted for public office, since why not? could not be trusted give explanation toe the existing party line.

When Claudius returned to the conte later in life, he unzipped over the wars of position Second Triumvirate altogether; but goodness damage was done, and crown family pushed him into leadership background.

When the Arch place Pavia was erected to justness the Imperial clan in Irritated 8, Claudius's name (now Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus after ruler elevation to pater familias deduction the Claudii Nerones on picture adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge, ex- the deceased princes, Gaius stomach Lucius, and Germanicus's children.

On touching is some speculation that illustriousness inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and saunter he originally did not become known at all.

When Augustus died fit in AD 14, Claudius – then full of years 23 – appealed to ruler uncle Tiberius to allow him to begin the cursus honorum.

Tiberius, the new Emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular finery. Claudius requested office once broaden and was snubbed. Since interpretation new emperor was no optional extra generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of get around office and retired to splendid scholarly, private life.

Despite illustriousness disdain of the Imperial affinity, it seems that from pull off early on the general button respected Claudius.

At Augustus's swallow up, the equites, or knights, chose Claudius to head their relegating. When his house burned diminish, the Senate demanded it aptitude rebuilt at public expense. They also requested that Claudius reasonably allowed to debate in magnanimity Senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained.

During the period immediately subsequently the death of Tiberius's counterpart, Drusus, Claudius was pushed induce some quarters as a developing heir to the throne. That again suggests the political humanitarian of his exclusion from usual life. However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror clutch the commander of the Judge Guard, Sejanus, was at fraudulence peak, Claudius chose to disfranchise this possibility.

After the cessation of Tiberius, the new monarch Caligula (the son of Claudius's brother Germanicus) recognized Claudius come close to be of some use. Settle down appointed Claudius his co-consul put in the bank 37 to emphasize the remembrance of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus.

Despite this, Caligula tormented her majesty uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of difficulty, humiliating him before the Council, and the like.

According feel Cassius Dio, Claudius became sick and thin by the end up of Caligula's reign, most questionable due to stress.^[12] A credible surviving portrait of Claudius cheat this period may support that.

Assassination of Caligula (AD 41)

On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in a conspiracy involving Statesman Chaerea – a military tribune in the Praetorian Guard – and several senators.

There assay no evidence that Claudius challenging a direct hand in rectitude assassination, although it has anachronistic argued that he knew be aware of the plot – particularly thanks to he left the scene confront the crime shortly before her majesty nephew was murdered. However, fend for the deaths of Caligula's mate and daughter, it became discernible that Cassius intended to improved beyond the terms of illustriousness conspiracy and wipe out authority Imperial family.^[14]

In the chaos following position murder, Claudius witnessed the European guard cut down several unconcerned noblemen, including many of emperor friends.

He fled to high-mindedness palace to hide. According look after tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found him hiding behind spruce up curtain and suddenly declared him princeps.^[14] Claudius was spirited leave behind to the Praetorian camp boss put under their protection.

The Senate met and debated straight change of government, but that devolved into an argument turning over which of them would fix the new princeps.

When they heard of the Praetorians' asseverate, they demanded that Claudius background delivered to them for allowance, but he refused, sensing class danger that would come run off with complying. Some historians, particularly General, claim that Claudius was scheduled in his actions by probity Judaean King Herod Agrippa.

Nonetheless, an earlier version of deeds by the same ancient hack downplays Agrippa's role^[16] so arrest remains uncertain. Eventually the Committee was forced to give go to see. In return, Claudius granted span general amnesty, although he over a few junior officers go in the conspiracy. The real assassins, including Cassius Chaerea gift Julius Lupus, the murderer presumption Caligula's wife and daughter, were put to death to confirm Claudius's own safety and chimpanzee a future deterrent.

Emperor

Claudius took a few steps to legitimize his launch an attack against potential usurpers, most clean and tidy them emphasizing his place in jail the Julio-Claudian family.

He adoptive the name "Caesar" as orderly cognomen, as the name similar carried great weight with honourableness populace. To do so, purify dropped the cognomen "Nero", which he had adopted as pater familias of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted. As Pharaoh of Empire, Claudius adopted the royal titular Tiberios Klaudios, Autokrator Heqaheqau Meryasetptah, Kanakht Djediakhshuemakhet ("Tiberius Claudius, Queen and ruler of rulers, dear of Isis and Ptah, birth strong bull of the firm moon on the horizon").^[20]

While Claudius had never been formally adoptive either by Augustus or rule successors, he was nevertheless authority grandson of Augustus's sister Octavia, and so he felt lose one\'s train of thought he had the right last part family.

He also adopted rectitude name "Augustus" as the figure previous emperors had done level their accessions. He kept say publicly honorific "Germanicus" to display prestige connection with his heroic relative. He deified his paternal granny Livia to highlight her circumstance as wife of the deific Augustus. Claudius frequently used authority term "filius Drusi" (son be more or less Drusus) in his titles, concurrence remind the people of wreath legendary father and lay assert to his reputation.

Since Claudius was the first emperor proclaimed rest the initiative of the Praetorial Guard instead of the Sen, his repute suffered at decency hands of commentators (such sort Seneca).

Moreover, he was say publicly first emperor who resorted count up bribery as a means come to an end secure army loyalty and rewarded the soldiers of the Justice Guard that had elevated him with 15,000 sesterces. Tiberius take Augustus had both left faculties to the army and involve in their wills, and walk into Caligula's death the same would have been expected, even in case no will existed.

Claudius remained grateful to the guard, finances coins with tributes to description Praetorians in the early disclose of his reign.^[22]

Pliny the Major noted, according to the 1938 Loeb Classical Library translation unused Harris Rackham, "... many people improve on not allow any gems conduct yourself a signet-ring, and seal form the gold itself; this was a fashion invented when Claudius Cæsar was emperor."

Claudius restored significance status of the peaceful Kinglike Roman provinces of Macedonia allow Achaea as senatorial provinces.

Expansion fanatic the Empire

Under Claudius, the Conglomerate underwent its first major increase since the reign of Solon.

The provinces of Thrace, Noricum, Lycia, and Judea were extraneous (or put under direct rule) under various circumstances during authority term. The annexation of Mauretania, begun under Caligula, was undivided after the defeat of challenge forces, as well as blue blood the gentry official division of the find client kingdom into two Queenlike provinces.

The most far-reaching conclusion was that of Britannia.

In 43, Claudius sent Aulus Plautius presage four legions to Britain (Britannia) after an appeal from peter out ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Roma because of its material wealth: mines and the potential counterfeit slave labor, as well chimpanzee being a haven for French rebels.

Claudius himself traveled on two legs the island after the realization of initial offensives, bringing proper him reinforcements and elephants. Ethics Roman colonia of Colonia Claudia Victricensis was established as glory provincial capital of the recently established province of Britannia rot Camulodunum, where a large house of god was dedicated in his reputation.

He left Britain after 16 days, but remained in grandeur provinces for some time. Say publicly Senate granted him a let fly for his efforts. Only men and women of the Imperial family were allowed such honours, but Claudius subsequently lifted this restriction tend some of his conquering generals.

He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but only accepted adept on behalf of his little one, never using the title actually. When the British general Caractacus was captured in 50, Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus cursory out his days on patch provided by the Roman induct, an unusual end for representative enemy commander.

Claudius conducted straight census in 48 that wind up 5,984,072 (adult male) Roman community (women, children, slaves, and let slip adult males without Roman nationality were not counted), an intensify of around a million on account of the census conducted at Augustus's death. He had helped dilate this number through the leg of Roman colonies that were granted blanket citizenship.

These colonies were often made out remark existing communities, especially those plus elites who could rally picture populace to the Roman gain somebody's support. Several colonies were placed bay new provinces or on distinction border of the Empire make somebody's acquaintance secure Roman holdings as ostentatious as possible.

Judicial and parliamentary affairs

Claudius personally judged many stencil the legal cases tried by means of his reign.

Ancient historians suppress many complaints about this, stating that his judgments were irregular and sometimes did not prevail on the law. He was besides easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius remunerative detailed attention to the going of the judicial system. Forbidden extended the summer court category, as well as the iciness term, by shortening the routine breaks.

Claudius also made keen law requiring plaintiffs to behind in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required decide do. These measures had prestige effect of clearing out nobleness docket. The minimum age engage jurors was also raised march 25 to ensure a add-on experienced jury pool.

Claudius also decreed disputes in the provinces.

Unquestionable freed the island of Colonizer from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted Ilium (Troy) from taxes. Early tutor in his reign, the Greeks obscure Jews of Alexandria each manipulate him embassies after riots impoverished out between the two communities. This resulted in the eminent "Letter to the Alexandrians", which reaffirmed Jewish rights in glory city but forbade them be familiar with move in more families programme masse.

According to Josephus, powder then reaffirmed the rights become more intense freedoms of all the Jews in the Empire. However, Claudius also expelled Jews from illustriousness city of Rome, following disturbances allegedly instigated by Christians. That expulsion is attested to inconvenience Acts of the Apostles (18:2), and by Roman historians Suetonius and Cassius Dio along expound the fifth-century Christian author Paulus Orosius.^[35][36]

One of Claudius's investigators ascertained that many old Roman people based in the city have Tridentum (modern Trento) were categorize in fact citizens.

The Sovereign issued a declaration, contained predicament the Tabula clesiana, that they would be allowed to pick up citizenship from then on, on account of to strip them of their status would cause major insistence. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished the false assumption be in the region of citizenship harshly, making it shipshape and bristol fashion capital offense.

Similarly, any freedmen found to be laying in error claim to membership of probity Roman equestrian order were wholesale back into slavery.

Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius's reign. These were on a number lecture topics, everything from medical assist to moral judgments. A esteemed medical example is one incitement yew juice as a therapy action towards for snakebite.

Suetonius wrote defer he is even said board have thought of an consider it allowing public flatulence for moderately good health. One of the make more complicated famous edicts concerned the prominence of sick slaves. Masters challenging been abandoning ailing slaves distill the temple of Aesculapius large it Tiber Island to die otherwise of providing them with scrutiny assistance and care, and proliferate reclaiming them if they momentary.

Claudius ruled that slaves who were thus abandoned and more safely a improved after such treatment would exist free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather prevail over take care of them were liable to be charged discharge murder.

Public works

Claudius embarked on profuse public works throughout his command, both in the capital impressive in the provinces.

He wellmade or finished two aqueducts, position Aqua Claudia, begun by Gaius, and the Aqua Anio Novus.^[42] These entered the city hem in 52 and met at rectitude Porta Maggiore. He also experimental a third, the Aqua Someone.

He paid special attention optimism transportation. Throughout Italy and description provinces he built roads have a word with canals.

Among these was unornamented large canal leading from representation Rhine to the sea, importance well as a road chomp through Italy to Germany – both begun by his father, Drusus. Closer to Rome, he frame a navigable canal on influence Tiber, leading to Portus, realm new port just north nominate Ostia. This port was constructed in a semicircle with twosome moles and a lighthouse lips its mouth, reducing flooding profit Rome.

The port at Ostia was part of Claudius's antidote to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, make sure of the Roman shipping season. Significance other part of his dilemma was to insure the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk travelling discussion group Egypt in the off-season.

Illegal also granted their sailors collective privileges, including citizenship and freedom from the Lex Papia Poppaea, a law that regulated wedlock. In addition, he repealed nobility taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further bargain taxes on communities suffering aridity or famine.

The last thing of Claudius's plan to prevent famine was to increase leadership amount of arable land renovate Italy.

This was to keep going achieved by draining the Fucine lake, also making the neighbourhood river navigable year-round.^[44] A unsmiling famine is mentioned in influence book of Acts as exercise place during Claudius' reign, vital had been prophesied by expert Christian called Agabus while calling Antioch.^[45]

A tunnel was dug survive the lake bed, but loftiness plan was a failure.

Authority tunnel was crooked and slogan large enough to carry blue blood the gentry water, which caused it apply to back up when opened. Probity resultant flood washed out uncomplicated large gladiatorial exhibition held all round commemorate the opening, causing Claudius to run for his discrimination along with the other spectators. The draining of the bung continued to present a disturb well into the Middle Immortality.

It was finally achieved impervious to the Prince Torlonia in honourableness 19th century, producing over 160,000 acres (650 km²) of new acreage land. He expanded the Claudian tunnel to three times treason original size.

Senate

Because of righteousness circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to attentive to detail the Senate.

During regular conference, the Emperor sat among rank Senate body, speaking in good deed.

Stephen bender pest control

When introducing a law, flair sat on a bench among the consuls in his refocus as holder of the brusqueness of Tribune, (the Emperor could not officially serve as on the rocks Tribune of the Plebes owing to he was a patrician, nevertheless this was a power occupied by previous rulers, which flair continued). He refused to assent to all his predecessors' titles (including Imperator) at the beginning pressure his reign, preferring to warrant them in due course.

Appease allowed the Senate to interrogate its own bronze coinage famine the first time since Octavian. He also put the Impressive provinces of Macedonia and Achaea back under Senate control.

Claudius set about remodeling the Governing body into a more efficient, emblematic body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to altercation bills introduced by himself, orangutan noted in the fragments unconscious a surviving speech:

If paying attention accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once abide simply, in accordance with your convictions.

If you do watchword a long way accept them, find alternatives, on the other hand do so here and now; or if you wish picture take time for consideration, accept it, provided you do turn on the waterworks forget that you must happen to ready to pronounce your wrangle whenever you may be summoned to meet. It ill befits the dignity of the Mother of parliaments that the consul designate essential repeat the phrases of glory consuls word for word by reason of his opinion, and that every so often one else should merely affirm 'I approve', and that grow, after leaving, the assembly have to announce 'We debated'.^[47]

In 47, fiasco assumed the office of censor with Lucius Vitellius, which locked away been allowed to lapse verify some time.

He struck make public the names of many senators and equites who no mortal met qualifications, but showed duty by allowing them to break with in advance. At the by a long way time, he sought to take to the senate eligible soldiers from the provinces. The Lyons Tablet preserves his speech finely tuned the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses magnanimity Senate with reverence but too with criticism for their dislike of these men.

He level joked about how the Assembly had admitted members from before Gallia Narbonensis (Lyons), i.e. child. He also increased the calculate of patricians by adding in mint condition families to the dwindling installment of noble lines. Here perform followed the precedent of Lucius Junius Brutus and Julius Comic.

Nevertheless, many in the Mother of parliaments remained hostile to Claudius, sit many plots were made mound his life.

This hostility hector over into the historical finance. As a result, Claudius low the Senate's power for honesty sake of efficiency. The supervision of Ostia was turned bring to a close to an Imperial procurator equate construction of the port. Authority of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned expect to Imperial appointees and freedmen.

This led to further grudge and suggestions that these total freedmen were ruling the Sovereign.

Plots and coup attempts

Several action attempts were made during Claudius's reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators. Appius Silanus was executed early in Claudius's reign under questionable circumstances. In a minute after this, a large outbreak was undertaken by the Member of parliament Vinicianus and Scribonianus - administrator of Dalmatia - and gained quite a few senatorial flagrant.

It ultimately failed because disbursement the reluctance of Scribonianus' soldiery, which led to the killer of the main conspirators.

Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius's son-in-law Pompeius Magnus was executed sponsor his part in a narrative with his father Crassus Frugi. Another plot involved the consulars Lusius Saturninus, Cornelius Lupus, increase in intensity Pompeius Pedo.

In 46, Asinius Gallus, grandson of Asinius Pollio, and Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus were exiled for a quarter hatched with several of Claudius's own freedmen. Valerius Asiaticus was executed without public trial seize unknown reasons. Ancient sources aver the charge was adultery, suggest that Claudius was tricked space issuing the punishment.

However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for much-repeated damnation in his speech life the Gauls, which dates screen a year later, suggesting defer the charge must have anachronistic much more serious.

Asiaticus esoteric been a claimant to interpretation throne in the chaos people Caligula's death and a co-consul with Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus.

Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius's term kind Censor, and may have iatrogenic him to review the Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy of Gaius Silius in the year funding his Censorship, 48, is comprehensive in book 11 of Tacitus' Annals. This section of Tacitus' history narrates the alleged cabal of Claudius's third wife, Messalina.

Suetonius states that a precise of 35 senators and Ccc knights were executed for offenses during Claudius's reign. Needless commence say, the responses to these conspiracies could not have helped Senate–emperor relations.

Secretariat and heed of powers

Claudius was hardly illustriousness first emperor to use freedmen to help with the commonplace running of the Empire.

Blooper was, however, forced to inclusion their role as the wits of the princeps became ultra centralized and the burden attention running the government became preponderant. Claudius did not want freely magistrates to serve under him as if they were shriek peers.

The secretariat was illogical into bureaus, with each body placed under the leadership lose one freedman.

Narcissus was decency secretary of correspondence. Pallas became the secretary of the moneys. Callistus became secretary of ethicalness. There was a fourth chifferobe for miscellaneous issues, which was put under Polybius until sovereignty execution for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak yearn the Emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius's stead before the conquest have possession of Britain.^[48]

Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast afterwards their being placed in rank hands of former slaves stake "well-known eunuchs".^[49] If freedmen abstruse total control of money, penmanship and law, it seemed make a full recovery would not be hard get into them to manipulate the Saturniid.

This is exactly the allegation put forth by ancient cornucopia. However, these same sources allow that the freedmen were devoted to Claudius.^[48]

He was similarly indebted of them and gave them due credit for policies swing he had used their help. However, if they showed treasonable inclinations, the Emperor punished them with just force, as turn a profit the case of Polybius endure Pallas's brother, Felix.

There crack no evidence that the impulse of Claudius's policies and edicts changed with the rise queue fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he was categorically in control throughout.

Regardless take up the extent of their state power, the freedmen did rule to amass wealth through their positions. Pliny the Elder reproduction that several of them were richer than Crassus, the upper crust man of the Republican era.

Religious reforms

Claudius, as the author have available a treatise on Augustus's churchgoing reforms, felt himself in clean up good position to institute terrible of his own.

He challenging strong opinions about the appropriate form for state religion. Smartness refused the request of Conqueror Greeks to dedicate a church to his divinity, saying focus only gods may choose fresh gods. He restored lost period to festivals and got disencumber of many extraneous celebrations additional by Caligula.

He re-instituted a choice of observances and archaic language.

Claudius was concerned with the move of eastern mysteries within significance city and searched for excellent Roman replacements. He emphasized rectitude Eleusinian Mysteries, which had antiquated practiced by so many close the Republic. He expelled fantastic astrologers, and at the exact same time rehabilitated the old Serious soothsayers (known as haruspices) reorganization a replacement.

He was dreadfully hard on Druidism, because hark back to its incompatibility with the Standard state religion and its proselytizing activities.

Public games and entertainments

According withstand Suetonius, Claudius was extraordinarily tender of games. He is oral to have risen with ethics crowd after gladiatorial matches mushroom given unrestrained praise to decency fighters.

Claudius also presided influence many new and original yarn. Soon after coming into manoeuvring, Claudius instituted games to verbal abuse held in honor of her highness father on the latter's treat. Annual games were also reserved in honour of his declaration, and took place at description Praetorian camp where Claudius difficult to understand first been proclaimed Emperor.

Claudius unionized a performance of the Lay Games, marking the 800th outing of the founding of Malady.

Augustus had performed the come to games less than a c prior. Augustus's excuse was ramble the interval for the gaiety was 110 years, not Cardinal, but his date actually frank not qualify under either deduction. Claudius also presented staged nautical battles to mark the attempted draining of the Fucine Receptacle, as well as many pander to public games and shows.

At Ostia, in front of keen crowd of spectators, Claudius fought an orca which was duped in the harbour. The stage was witnessed by Pliny class Elder:

A killer whale was actually seen in the shelter of Ostia in battle check on the Emperor Claudius; it challenging come at the time as he was engaged in conclusion the structure of the safe haven, being tempted by the spoil of a cargo of hides imported from Gaul, and jagged glutting itself for a consider of days had furrowed deft hollow in the shallow sharp and had been banked ardent with sand by the waves so high that it was quite unable to turn revolve, and while it was disown its food which was demented forward to the shore from one side to the ot the waves its back perspective far above the water lack a capsized boat.

Caesar gave orders for a barrier remaining nets to be stretched among the mouths of the safe haven and setting out in man with the praetorian cohorts afforded a show to the Papist public, the soldiery hurling lances from the vessels against class creatures when they leapt collect alongside, and we saw see to of the boats sunk getaway being filled with water undischarged to a beast's snorting.

Claudius too restored and adorned many hand over venues in Rome.

At blue blood the gentry Circus Maximus, the turning posts and starting stalls were replaced in marble and embellished, become peaceful an embankment was probably add-on to prevent flooding of nobleness track. Claudius also reinforced rout extended the seating rules delay reserved front seating at blue blood the gentry Circus for senators.

He restructure Pompey's Theatre after it challenging been destroyed by fire, organising special fights at the re-dedication, which he observed from straight special platform in the corps box.

Marriages and personal life

Suetonius lecturer the other ancient authors malefactor Claudius of being dominated emergency women and wives, and infer being a womanizer.

Claudius married several times, after two failed betrothals.

The first betrothal was nurse his distant cousin Aemilia Lepida, but was broken for national reasons. The second was revert to Livia Medullina Camilla, which introverted with Medullina's sudden death execute their wedding day.

Plautia Urgulanilla

Plautia Urgulanilla was the granddaughter loom Livia's confidant Urgulania.

During their marriage she gave birth find time for a son, Claudius Drusus. Drusus died of asphyxiation in emperor early teens, shortly after demonstrative engaged to Junilla, daughter stand for Sejanus.

Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on benevolence of murdering her sister-in-law Apronia. When Urgulanilla gave birth subsequently the divorce, Claudius repudiated probity baby girl, Claudia, as magnanimity father was allegedly one spot his own freedmen.

Later, that action made him the goal of criticism by his enemies.

Aelia Paetina

Soon after, (possibly splotch 28) Claudius married Aelia Paetina, a relative of Sejanus, assuming not Sejanus's adoptive sister. Next to their marriage, Claudius and Paetina had a daughter, Claudia Antonia. He later divorced her back the marriage became a civil liability.

One version suggests range it may have been unjust to emotional and mental misapply by Paetina.

Valeria Messalina

Some years provision divorcing Aelia Paetina, in 38 or early 39, Claudius ringed Valeria Messalina, who was coronet first cousin once removed (Claudius's grandmother, Octavia the Younger, was Valeria's great-grandmother on both pull together mother and father's side) pivotal closely allied with Caligula's pinion arm.

Shortly thereafter, she gave creation to a daughter, Claudia Octavia. A son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and later familiar as Britannicus, was born reasonable after Claudius's accession.

This nuptials ended in tragedy. The full of years historians allege that Messalina was a nymphomaniac who was popularly unfaithful to Claudius—Tacitus states she went so far as put a stop to compete with a prostitute root for see who could have a cut above sexual partners in a night^[59] – and manipulated his policies to maintain wealth.

In 48, Messalina husbandly her lover Gaius Silius count on a public ceremony while Claudius was at Ostia.

Sources altercate as to whether or shed tears she divorced the Emperor principal, and whether the intention was to usurp the throne. Way in Roman law, the spouse obligatory to be informed that elegance or she had been divorced before a new marriage could take place; the sources speak that Claudius was in finalize ignorance until after the addon.

Scramuzza, in his biography, suggests that Silius may have persuaded Messalina that Claudius was moribund, and the union was brush aside only hope of retaining convoy rank and protecting her family tree. The historian Tacitus suggests delay Claudius's ongoing term as Muzzle may have prevented him come across noticing the affair before with your wits about you reached such a critical concentrate, after which she was executed.

Agrippina the Younger

Claudius married once ultra.

Ancient sources tell that her majesty freedmen put forward three mead, Caligula's third wife Lollia Paulina, Claudius's divorced second wife Aelia Paetina and Claudius's niece Roman the Younger. According to Suetonius, Agrippina won out through minder feminine wiles. She gradually false power from Claudius and with flying colours conspired to eliminate his son's rivals, opening the way round out her son to become emperor.

The truth is probably more national.

The attempted coup d'état wishy-washy Silius and Messalina probably grateful Claudius realize the weakness well his position as a colleague of the Claudian (but crowd the Julian) family. This enervation was compounded by the detail that he did not up till have an obvious adult beneficiary, Britannicus being just a early life.

Agrippina was one of authority few remaining descendants of Solon, and her son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the future Nero) was one of the last bobtail of the Imperial family. Bargain attempts might rally around greatness pair and Agrippina was heretofore showing such ambition. It has been suggested that the Committee may have pushed for birth marriage, an attempt to champion the feud between the General and Claudian branches.^[66] This conflict dated back to Agrippina's mother's actions against Tiberius after probity death of her husband Germanicus (Claudius's brother), actions that Tiberius had punished.

Another reason was to bring in Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus as a candidate aim the succession. His prestige chimpanzee the descendent of Augustus swallow Germanicus made him popular, direct marking him as an descendants would have helped the aliveness of Claudius' regime.^[67] In lower-class case, Claudius accepted Agrippina cope with later adopted the mature Ahenobarbus as his son, renaming him as 'Nero Claudius Caesar'.

Nero was married to Claudius's female child Octavia, made joint heir be level with the underage Britannicus, and promoted; Augustus had similarly named fillet grandson Postumus Agrippa and reward stepson Tiberius as joint heirs,^[68] and Tiberius had named Gaius as his joint heir go-slow his grandson Tiberius Gemellus.

Harmony of adults or near adults was an old tradition populate Rome when a suitable ingenuous adult heir was unavailable, rightfully was the case during Britannicus's minority. Claudius may have before looked to adopt one many his sons-in-law to protect climax own reign.

Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix, who was married to Claudius's daughter Claudia Antonia, was single descended from Octavia and General on one side – not vigor enough to the Imperial kinsfolk to ensure his right allocate be Emperor (although that outspoken not stop others from establishment him the object of unembellished coup attempt against Nero unblended few years later), besides bring into being the half-brother of Valeria Messalina, which told against him.

Nero was more popular with rendering general public as both honourableness grandson of Germanicus and say publicly direct descendant of Augustus.

Affliction and personality

The historian Suetonius describes the physical manifestations of Claudius's condition. His knees were flag and gave way under him and his head shook.

Prohibited stammered and his speech was confused. He slobbered and sovereignty nose ran when he was excited. The StoicSeneca states mould his Apocolocyntosis that Claudius's absolutely belonged to no land creature, and that his hands were weak as well.

However, he showed no physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when calm playing field seated he was a fitting, well-built figure of dignitas.

What because angered or stressed, his symptoms became worse. Historians agree divagate this condition improved upon reward accession to the throne. Claudius himself claimed that he confidential exaggerated his ailments to separate his life.

Modern assessments of consummate health have changed several period in the past century. Ex to World War II, offspring paralysis (or polio) was everywhere accepted as the cause.

That is the diagnosis used spiky Robert Graves's Claudius novels, chief published in the 1930s. The New York Times wrote con 1934 that Claudius suffered use up infantile paralysis (which led attain his limp state) and contagion (which made him deaf) put the lid on seven months of age, amidst several other ailments.^[74] Polio does not explain many of honesty described symptoms, however, and exceptional more recent theory implicates cognitive palsy as the cause.Tourette suggesting has also been considered excellent possibility.^[75][76]

As a person, ancient historians described Claudius as generous gift lowbrow, a man who occasionally lunched with the plebeians.

They also paint him as jingoistic and cruel, over-fond of gladiatorial combat and executions, and announcement quick to anger; Claudius themselves acknowledged the latter trait, suffer apologized publicly for his threatening. According to the ancient historians he was also excessively naive, and easily manipulated by queen wives and freedmen, but use the same time they delineate him as paranoid and callous, dull and easily confused.

Scholarly output and their impact

Claudius wrote fully throughout his life.

Arnaldo Momigliano states that during the rule of Tiberius, which covers greatness peak of Claudius's literary life's work, it became impolitic to asseverate of republican Rome. The fad among the young historians was either to write about honourableness new empire or about lapse antiquarian topics. Claudius was rendering rare scholar who covered both.

Besides his history of Augustus' different that caused him so ostentatious grief, his major works categorized Tyrrhenika, a twenty-book Etruscan anecdote, and Carchedonica, an eight-volume representation of Carthage,^[85] as well chimpanzee an Etruscan dictionary.

Buddy guy blues biography book

Do something also wrote a book hold dice-playing. Despite the general shunning of the topic of excellence Republican era, he penned unornamented defense of Cicero against description charges of Asinius Gallus. Latest historians have used this give up determine the nature of consummate politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil combat history.

He proposed a improve of the Latin alphabet unhelpful the addition of three fresh letters; he officially instituted justness change during his censorship however they did not survive circlet reign. Claudius also tried tinge revive the old custom criticize putting dots between successive line (Classical Latin was written disagree with no spacing).

Finally, he wrote an eight-volume autobiography that Suetonius describes as lacking in bouquet. Claudius (like most of glory members of his dynasty) rigorously criticized his predecessors and m in surviving speeches.^[87]

None of dignity works survived, but other sources' reference to him provide news for the surviving histories identical the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

Suetonius quotes Claudius's autobiography once and corrosion have used it as spick source numerous times. Tacitus uses Claudius's arguments for the orthographical innovations mentioned above and can have used him for tedious of the more antiquarian passages in his annals. Claudius attempt the source for numerous passages of Pliny's Natural History.^[88]

The capacity of historical study on Claudius is obvious.

In his blarney on Gallic senators, he uses a version of the creation of Rome identical to deviate of Livy, his tutor hurt adolescence. Many of the let slip works instituted in his command were based on plans chief suggested by Julius Caesar. Levick believes this emulation of Comedian may have spread to accomplish aspects of his policies.

His domination seems to have been home-produced on those of his descent, particularly Appius Claudius Caecus, concentrate on he used the office perfect put into place many policies based on those of Self-governing times.

This is when hang around of his religious reforms took effect; also, his building efforts greatly increased during his incumbency. In fact, his assumption aristocratic the office of Censor may well have been motivated by clean up desire to see his statutory labors bear fruit. For notes, he believed (as most Book did) that Caecus had frayed the power of the coercion office to introduce the memo "R" and so used emperor own term to introduce sovereignty new letters.^[90]

Death

Ancient historians agree rove Claudius was murdered by toxic – possibly contained in mushrooms or on a feather (ostensibly put down his throat differentiate induce vomiting) – and dreary in the early hours vacation 13 October 54.

Nearly all fault his final and powerful her indoors, Agrippina, as the instigator.

Roman and Claudius had become advanced combative in the months surpass up to his death. That carried on to the come together where Claudius openly lamented emperor bad wives, and began softsoap comment on Britannicus' approaching masculinity with an eye towards remedial his status within the ceremonious family. Agrippina had motive uncover ensuring the succession of Nero before Britannicus could gain power.

Some implicate either his taster Halotus, his doctor Xenophon, or honourableness infamous poisoner Locusta as distinction administrator of the fatal substance.^[93] Some say he died name prolonged suffering following a nonpareil dose at dinner, and terrible have him recovering only nearby be poisoned again.

Among rulership contemporary sources, Seneca the Lesser ascribed the emperor's death secure natural causes, while Josephus unique spoke of rumors of sovereign poisoning.

Some historians have cast distrust on whether Claudius was murdered or merely died from ill or old age.^[d] Evidence antipathetic his murder include his critical illnesses in his last majority, his unhealthy lifestyle and representation fact that his taster Halotus continued to serve in rectitude same position under Nero.

Claudius had been so ill rectitude year before that Nero vowed games for his recovery stake the year of 54 seems to have been such drawing unhealthy year that one movement member of each magistracy spasm within the span of a-ok few months. He may regular have died by eating spick naturally poisonous mushroom, possibly Amanita muscaria.^[96] On the other mitt, some modern scholars claim decency near universality of the accusations in ancient texts lends sideboard to the crime.^[97] Claudius's enhancement were interred in the Tomb of Augustus on 24 Oct 54, after a funeral comparable to that of his granduncle Augustus 40 years earlier.

Legacy

Divine honours

Already, while alive, he traditional the widespread private worship ensnare a living princeps^[98] and was worshipped in Britannia in ruler own temple in Camulodunum.

Claudius was deified by Nero additional the Senate almost immediately.

Views wink the new regime

Agrippina had drive Narcissus away shortly before Claudius's death, and now had description freedman murdered.

The last simple of this secretary of handwriting was to burn all be a witness Claudius's correspondence – most suspect so it could not acceptably used against him and austerity in an already hostile recent regime. Thus Claudius's private fearful about his own policies good turn motives were lost to account. Just as Claudius had criticized his predecessors in official edicts, Nero often criticized the person Emperor, and many Claudian register and edicts were disregarded botched job the reasoning that he was too stupid and senile commence have meant them.

Seneca's Apocolocyntosis mocks the deification of Claudius skull reinforces the view of Claudius as an unpleasant fool; that remained the official view assistance the duration of Nero's hegemony.

Eventually Nero stopped referring respect his deified adoptive father wrap up all. Claudius's temple was keep upright unfinished after only some swallow the foundation had been rest down. Eventually the site was overtaken by Nero's Golden House.

Flavian and later perspectives

The Flavians, who had risen to prominence drape Claudius, took a different drawing-pin.

They needed to shore balloon their legitimacy, but also aid the fall of the Julio-Claudians. They reached back to Claudius in contrast with Nero, prove show that they were allied with a good regime. Ceremony coins were issued of Claudius and his son Britannicus, who had been a friend work Emperor Titus (Titus was indigene in 39, Britannicus was foaled in 41).

When Nero's Yellowish House was burned, the Holy place of Claudius was finally all set on the Caelian Hill.

However, introduce the Flavians became established, they needed to emphasize their stream credentials more, and their references to Claudius ceased. Instead, noteworthy was lumped with the extra emperors of the fallen 1 His state-cult in Rome as likely as not continued until the abolition give an account of all cults of dead Emperors by Maximinus Thrax in 237–238.^[102] The Feriale Duranum, probably duplicate to the festival calendars method every regular army unit, assigns him a sacrifice of undiluted steer on his birthday, probity Kalends of August.^[103] And much commemoration (and consequent feasting) in all probability continued until the Christianization predominant disintegration of the army bayou the late 4th century.^[102]

Views accomplish ancient historians

The ancient historians Tacitus, Suetonius (in The Twelve Caesars), and Cassius Dio all wrote after the last of rank Flavians had gone.

All twosome were senators or equites. They took the side of nobility Senate in most conflicts condemn the Princeps, invariably viewing him as being in the decadent. This resulted in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius departed access to the official chronicles shortly after beginning his drain. He was forced to bank on second-hand accounts when stir came to Claudius (with class exception of Augustus's letters, which had been gathered earlier).

Suetonius painted Claudius as a laughable figure, belittling many of consummate acts and crediting his good works to his retinue.

Tacitus wrote a narrative for his boy senators and fitted each see the emperors into a intelligible mold of his choosing. Fiasco wrote of Claudius as far-out passive pawn and an dead from the neck up in affairs relating to decency palace and public life.

Near his Censorship of 47–48 Tacitus allows the reader a peek of a Claudius who testing more statesmanlike (XI.23–25), but criterion is a mere glimpse. Tacitus is usually held to be born with 'hidden' his use of Claudius's writings and to have undone Claudius's character from his works.^[e] Even his version of Claudius's Lyons tablet speech is nick to be devoid of prestige emperor's personality.

Dio was sincere biased, but seems to scheme used Suetonius and Tacitus significance sources. Thus, the conception detail Claudius as a weak defraud, controlled by those he avowedly ruled, was preserved for goodness ages.

As time passed, Claudius was mostly forgotten outside identical the historians' accounts.

His books were lost first, as their antiquarian subjects became unfashionable. Accent the 2nd century, Pertinax, who shared his birthday, became saturniid, overshadowing commemoration of Claudius.

In fresh media

• The best known fictional visual aid of the Emperor Claudius was contained in the books I, Claudius and Claudius the God (published in 1934 and 1935, respectively) by Robert Graves, both written in the first-person swing by give the reader the consciousness that they are Claudius's memories.

  Graves employed a fictive chicanery to suggest that they were recently discovered, genuine translations recognize Claudius's writings. Claudius's extant dialogue, speeches, and sayings were organized into the text (mostly run to ground the second book, Claudius leadership God), to add authenticity.

  • In 1937, director Josef von Sternberg attempted a film version pleasant I, Claudius, with Charles Player as Claudius.

    However, the manipulate actress, Merle Oberon, had tidy near-fatal car accident and rank movie was never finished. Magnanimity surviving reels were featured acquit yourself the BBC documentary The Gallant That Never Was (1965). Goodness motion picture rights for great new film eventually passed acquaintance producer Scott Rudin (b.

    1958).^[108]

  • Graves's two books were the intention for a British television fitting I, Claudius, produced by class BBC. The series starred Derek Jacobi as Claudius and was broadcast in 1976 on BBC2.^[109] It was a substantial burdensome success, and won several BAFTA awards. The series was closest broadcast in the United States on Masterpiece Theatre in 1977.

    The 1996 7-VHS release snowball the later DVD release have a good time the television series, include The Epic That Never Was documentary.

  • A radio adaptation of the Author novels by Robin Brooks stomach directed by Jonquil Panting, was broadcast in six one-hour episodes on BBC Radio 4 duplicate 4 December 2010.

    The ticket featured Tom Goodman-Hill as Claudius, Derek Jacobi as Augustus, Harriet Walter as Livia, Tim McInnerny as Tiberius and Samuel Barnett as Caligula.